>BRIEFCOURSEONLEXICOLOGY
>Lecture 1
>Lexicology >is the science of theword anddistinguished in:
v General andspecial
vContrastive andcomparative
vDescriptive (thesynchronicapproach) andhistorical (thediachronicapproach).
>Contrastive andcomparative,descriptive andhistoricalarecloselyconnected.
>Lexicalunitsaremorphemes,words,word-groups,phraseologicalunits.
>Paradigm – thesystemshowing aword in allitsword-forms. Thelexicalmeaningis thesame; thegrammaticalmeaningvariesfromoneform toanother (totake,takes, taken,took,taking).
>Semasiology – thebranch oflexicology thatisdevoted to thestudy of themeaning.Thereare 2schoolswiththeirownapproaches to the problem of thewordsmeaning: >referential andfunctional.
>Types of themeaning
vGrammaticalmeaning
vPart ofspeechmeaning
vLexicalmeaning –maybe >denotational (>making thecommunicationpossible) and >connotational (theemotivecharge and thestylisticvalue).
>Stylisticvalueissubdividedinto >neutral,bookish andcolloquial. The lastmaybepointed outlikeslang, commoncolloquial,vulgarisms,dialecticalwords,professionalisms,jargonisms.
>Meaning >is theinnerfacet of theword,inseparablefromitsouterfacet (soundform)whichisindispensable to theexistence ofmeaning and tointercommunication.
>Motivation:
>Morphological (->able, ->less,re-,anti-)
>Phonetical (>boom,splash,cuckoo,pooh!)
>Semantic
>Change ofmeaning
>Word-meaningisliable to change in thecourse of thehistoricaldevelopment oflanguage.
>Causes ofsemantic change
vExtra-linguistic
vLinguistic (>ellipsis,discrimination ofsynonyms,linguisticanalogy)
The >kinds ofassociation >involved insemanticchangesare:
1.similarity ofmeanings
2.contiguity ofmeanings
>Results ofsemantic change:
1.changes indenotationalmeaning (>specialization,extension (>generalization [>specialized, common]))
2.changes inconnotationalmeaning:
vpejorativedevelopment (>derogatoryemotivecharge)
vameliorativedevelopment (theimprovement of thecon.component)
>Causes,nature andresult ofsemanticchangesshouldberegardedas 3essentiallydifferentbutcloselyconnectedaspects of thesamelinguisticphenomenon.
>Lecture 2
>Polysemy Themain problemis the problem ofinterrelation andinterdependence of thevariousmeanings of thesameword.
>Diachronically itis a >historical change in thesemanticstructureresulting indisappearance ofsomemeaningsor/and in newmeaningsbeingadded to theonesalreadyexistingalso in therearrangement ofthesemeanings initssemanticstructure.
>Synchronically itisco-existence of thevariousmeanings of thesamewordat acertainhistoricalperiod and thearrangement ofthesemeanings in thesemanticstructure of theword.
>Diachronically:primary (>original) andsecondary (>derived)meaningsviewedchronically.
>Synchronically:central (>basic) andmarginal (>minor)meaningsaccording totheirrelativefrequency inspeech.
Thesemanticstructureisneverstatic. Therelationshipbetween thediachronic andsynchronicevaluation ofindividualmeanings of thesamewordmaybedifferent indifferentperiods of thehistoricaldevelopment oflanguage.
Thewhole of thesemanticstructure ofcorrelatedpolysemanticwords ofdifferent languagescanneverbeidentical.Wordsarefeltascorrelatediftheirbasic (>central)meaningscoincide.
>Lecture 3
>Homonymy >Fullhomonymy – ofwordsbelonging to thesamepart ofspeech.
>Partialhomonymy – ofindividualsword-forms ofdifferentpart ofspeech.
>Homonyms >maybe:
>lexical (>differ inlexicalmeaning)
>lexico-grammatical (>both inlexical andgrammatical)
>grammatical (ingrammaticalmeaningonly)
>Homonymsmaybeclassified on thebasis of 3aspectsaswell:
1. soundform
2.graphicform
3.meaning (>dew to themeaningtheyarederivedinto >homograpgs,homophones,perfect (>absolute)homonyms)
Thesources ofhomonymy:
>divergingmeaningdevelopment of apolysemanticword
>convergent sounddevelopment of 2 ormoredifferentwords (>mostpotentfactor)
Thecriteriaused in thesynchronicanalysis ofhomonyms:
1.semantic 2.spelling 3.distribution
The problem ofdiscriminatingbetweenpolysemy andhomonymy intheoreticallinguisticsiscloselyconnectedwith the problem of thebasicunitat thesemanticlevel ofanalysis.
>Word-meaning insyntagmatics andparadigmatics
>Intralinguistic relations ofwordsarebasically of 2types:syntagmatic andparadigmatic.
>Syntagmatic relations >define themeaning thewordpossesseswhen itisused incombinationwithotherwords in theflow ofspeech.
>Paradigmatic relations >arethose thatexistbetweenindividuallexicalitemswhichmake upone of thesubgroups ofvocabularyitems (>sets ofsynonyms,lexico-semanticgroups, etc.).
>Syntagmatic relations |
|
>Paradigmatic relations |
Hegot aletter. Ireceived anote. >Sheobtainedanepistle. |
>Lecture 4
>Context >mayberegarded inaspectsasfollowing:
>linguistic
>lexical
>grammatical
>extra-linguistic (ofsituation)
>Conceptual (>semantic)fields.
>Hoponymic (>hierachia)structures.
>Classification ofvocabularyintothematicgroupsisbased on common >contextualassociations (theresult ofregularco-occurrence ofwords insimilar,repeatedlyusedcontexts).
Themaincriterionunderlyingsemanticclassification ofvocabularyitems on theparadigmaticaxisistype ofmeaningrelationshipsbetweenwords.
Thecriterion of commonconceptserves toclassifywordsintosemanticfields andlexico-semanticgroups.
>Semanticrelationship ofinclusionis themainfeature ofhyponymichierarchicalstructure.Semanticsimilarity andsemanticcontrastis thetype ofrelationshipwhichunderlies theclassification oflexicalitemsintosynonymic andantonymicseries.
>Synonymy andantonymy >arecorrelative andsometimesoverlappingnotions.Synonymousrelationship of thedenotationalmeaningis inmanycasescombinedwith thedifference in theconnotational (>mainlystylistic)component.
>Synonyms -wordsdifferent insound-formbutsimilar intheirdenotationalmeaning ormeanings andinterchangeableatleast insomecontexts.
>Antonyms -wordsdifferent insound-formcharacterizedbydifferenttypes ofsemanticcontrast of thedenotationalmeaning andinterchangeableatleast insomecontexts.
>Word-groups –wordsputtogether toformlexicalunitsmake upphrases orword-groups.Comedew tolexical andgrammaticalvalency of thecomponents.
>Lexicalvalency >is theaptness of aword toappear invariouscollocations.Restriction of thelexicalvalencyare tobeaccountedforby theinnerstructure of thevocabulary of the Englishlanguage.
>Differentmeanings of apolysemanticwordmaybedescribedthroughitslexicalvalency.
>Grammaticalvalency >is theaptness of aword toappear invariousgrammaticalstructures.Restriction of thegrammaticalvalencyare tobeaccountedforby thegrammaticalstructure of thelanguage. Therange of thegrammaticalvalency of thewordisdelimitedby thepart ofspeech thewordbelongs to.
>Structurally,word-groupsmaybeclassifiedby thecriterion ofdistributioninto >exocentric and >endocentric (>theyaccording to thehead-wordaredistinguished >nominal,adverbial,verbal,adjectival).
>Semantically, >word-groupsmaybeclassifiedinto >motivated and >non-motivated (>phraseologicalunits)
>Lecture 5
>Phraseologicalunits – >non-motivatedword-groups thatcannotbefreelymade up inspeechbutarereproducedasreadymadeunits.
>Classification:
1.phraseologicalfusions –completelynon-motivated
2.phraseologicalunities –partiallynon-motivated
3.phraseologicalcollocations –motivatedbutmade up ofwordspossessingspecificlexicalvalency.That’swhythereis acertaindegree ofstability insuch group.
Thecriterion ofidiomaticity;
Thecriterion offunction;
Thecriterion ofcontext;
>Phraseologicalunits >mightalsobeshared to:
v >phrasemes –two-memberword-groups inwhichone of themembershasspecializedmeaningdependent on the secondcomponent: “>smallhours”.
v >Idioms – theidiomaticity of thewholeword-group;unusualness ofcollocability orlogicalincompability ofmember-words;usuallyhomonymouswithcorrespondingvariableword-groups: >redtape, tolet thecat out of thebag.
Thedistinguishingfeature of the newapproachis thatphraseologyisregardedas aself-containedbranch oflinguistics andnotas apart oflexicology.According tothisapproachphraseologydealswith alltypes ofsetexpressionswhicharedivided >into 3classes:
1.phraseologicalunits
2.phraseomaticunits
3.border-linecases
>Lecture 6
Wordstructure
>Thereare 2levels ofapproach to thestudy ofword-structure:
v thelevel ofmorphemicanalysis
v thelevel ofderivational orword-formationanalysis
Thebasicunit ofmorphemiclevelis the >morphemedefinedas the >smallestindivisibletwo-facetlanguageunit.
Threetypes ofmorphemicsegmentability ofwordsaredistinguished:
·complete
·conditional
·defective
>Words of >conditional anddefective >segmentabilityaremade up offullmorphemes andpseudo (>quasi)morphemes. Thelatterdonotrise to the status offullmorphemeseitherforsemanticreasons orbecause oftheiruniquedistribution.
>Semantically >morphemesfallinto:
1. >root-morphemes
2. >affixationalmorphemes
>Structurally >morphemesfallinto:
1. free
2. >bound
3.semi-free (>semi-bound)
Thestructuraltypes ofwordsat themorphemiclevelaredescribed interms of thenumber andtype oftheirICs (>immediateconstituents)asmonomorphic andpolymorphicwords.
>Derivationallevel ofanalysisaimsatfinding out thederivativetypes ofwords, theinterrelationbetweenthem andatfinding out howdifferenttypes ofderivativesareconstructed.
>Derivationately allwordsform 2structuralclasses:
1.simplexes (>non-derived)
2.complexes (>derivatives)which intheirturnmaybedividedinto:
·sufficial
·prefixal
·conversions
·compounds
>Eachstructuraltype ofcomplexesshowspreferenceforone oranotherpart ofspeech.Withinpart ofspeechderivativestructuresarecharacterizedby aset ofderivationalpatterns.
>Derivationalbasisdifferfromstemsbothstructurally andsemantically.Derivationalbasesarebuilt on thefollowinglanguageunits:
·stems ofvariousstructure
·word-forms
·word-group orphrases
>Eachclass andsubsetbaseshasitsownrange ofcollocability andshowspeculiartieswithdifferentparts ofspeech.
>Derivationalaffixesformderivedstemsbyrepatteringderivationalbases.Semanticallyderivationalaffixespresent aunity oflexicalmeaning andothertypes ofmeaning:functional,distributional anddifferentialunlikenon-derivationalaffixeswhichlacklexicalmeaning.
>Derivationalpatterns (>DP)aremeaningfularrangements ofvarioustypes ofICs thatcanbeobserved in aset ofwordsbased ontheirmutualinterdependence.DPscanbeviewed interms ofcollocability ofeachIC.
>Thereare 2types ofDPs: 1) >structural thatspecifybaseclasses andindividualaffixes.
2) >structural-semantic thatspecifysemanticpeculiarities ofbases and theindividualmeaning of theaffix.
>DPs ofdifferentlevels ofgeneralizationsignal:
· theclass ofsourceunit thatmotivates thederivative and thedirection ofmotivationbetweendifferentclasses ofwords.
· Thepart ofspeech of thederivative.
· Thelexicalsets andsemanticfeatures ofderivatives.
>Lecture 7
>Ways offormingwords (>according toA.I.Smirnitskiy):
>Word-formationis thesystem ofderivativetypes ofwords and theprocess ofcreating newwordsfrom thematerialavailable in thelanguageaftercertainstructural andsemanticformulas andpatterns.
>As asubject ofstudy Englishword-formationis thatbranch of Englishlexicologywhichstudies thederivativestructure ofwords and thepatterns onwhich the Englishlanguagebuilds newwords.Likeanyotherlinguisticphenomenon,word-formationmaybestudiedsynchronically anddiachronically.
>Thereare 2types ofword-formation inModern English:
1. >word-derivationbeing of 2kindslike >affixation andconversion
2. >word-composition
>Thereiseveryreason toexclude theshortening ofwords,lexicalization,blending,acronymyfrom thesystem ofword-formation andregardthem andotherword-formingprocessesasspecificmeans ofvocabularyrefreshment.Sound-and-stress interchange inModern Englishare ameans ofdistinguishingbetweendifferentwords,primarilybetweenwords ofdifferentpa5rts ofspeech.
Thedegree ofproductivity andfactorsfavouring itmakeanimportantaspect insynchronicdescription ofeveryderivationalpatternwithin the 2types ofword-formation.
Threedegrees ofproductivity >aredistinguishedforderivationalpatterns andindividualderivationalaffixes:
1.highlyproductive
2.productive orsemi-productive
3. non-productive
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